Moving Towards a Global Community Essay Example for Free

Moving Towards a Global Community EssayWith communism finally thought of as discredited, the US believed that it could finally assume sole dominance of global political and economic affairs. The US was wrong, as Communism was replaced with a new foe terrorism. The 1990s saw the emergence of Islamic terrorist groups, all of which have a single-minded goal to destroy the US. These terrorist organizations justify their actions by list that it is their duty as good Muslims to wage a war against all enemies of Islam (Halliday, 2003). Roots of the Jihad Most Islamic terrorist organizations came from Third World countries, where poverty and governing corruption are rampant. Furthermore, majority of the countries from which these terrorist groups originated are governed by pro-US regimes. In exchange for unlimited access to the raw materials of their respective countries, the US would grant them political, economic and armament assistance. The aforementioned scenario is conducive to the rise of Islamic terrorist organizations.Impoverished and desperate, many Muslims from the Third World find solace from these groups, who offer them overly simplistic explanations for their destitute state. leadership of Islamic terrorist organizations usually brainwash neophytes into believing that the US is responsible for the political, economic and social ills in their country. Thus, as good Muslims, they must fight the US heretofore at the cost of their very lives.The US, on the other hand, would protect itself by calling on lackey regimes to fight terrorism by crushing these groups, very much at the expense of civil rights and liberties of their constituents (Palmer and Palmer, 2004).ReferencesHalliday, F. (2003). Islam and the Myth of Confrontation Religion and Politics in the Middle East (2nd ed. ). London I. B. Tauris. Palmer, M. , Palmer, P. (2004). At the Heart of Terror Islam, Jihadists, and Americas state of war on Terrorism. New York Rowman and Littlefield.

Pure Cultures Lab Essay Example for Free

Pure Cultures Lab EssayIntroduction Pure cultures are made of entirely one type of organisms and can be used to study their properties. A method used to isolate pure cultures is making a steak-plate, which is a dilution exercise in which culture is interruption over an agar plate in a certain manner. Using a spiral rod, culture was taken from the furnish and dragged across field of battle 1 several time,of the agar. The agar was then turned 90, and the loop was flamed and cooled. Taking some culture from area 1, it was dragged over area two,and the same steps were done for areas 3 and 4. Another technique used was spread-plate, where the same culture is spread over the agar plate using a stereotypical L-shaped bent glass rod.The rod was dipped in 95% ethyl alcohol and flamed to sterlize. The nutrient agar was then placed on the plate, and spread with rod. An environmental plate was used to test the cultures of a random object, in our experiment, it was the ocular lens of a microscope. A cotton swab was dipped into sterile water, and a random item of our choice was swabbed. After mixing the swab back in the water, the contaminated water was applied to a spread plate.Results acquire attachedDiscussion All the plates were successful is isolating the pure cultures except the environmental. The reason for this may have been that there was no bacteria, due to the fact they had been lately cleaned. The slant agars were able to pick up on the bacteria to show the growth. The vial that had bright yellow bacteria growing was M.leuteus, showing the successful closing off and identification. Other vials that had M.Letues and S.marcescenes had a very slight shade of bacteria growth.Questions1. No because a when a broth culture is used, it has not been inoculated from a pure culture, the only way would be to use a streaking method or spread plate. A mix culture slant is hard to isolate, because bacteria is clumped together, getting a single colony is difficult. These may cause contamination to the bacteria during the inoculation period.2. If there was more culture in quadrant 4 than 3, it is due to the loop being dragged back into quadrant 1. The nutrient agar that was in 1 came back to 4, and showed more culture.

Theological Themes In The Chronicles Of Narnia Religion Essay

theological Themes In The Chronicles Of Narnia Religion EssayFour siblings, neb, Edmund, Susan and Lucy, were evacuated from World War2 to Professor Digorys country house. there was a huge wardrobe in one room of his house. The adventure began when quaternion siblings pass through the door of a mysterious wardrobe into Narnia held intent for a hundred years under the spell of the lily-white Witch. Lucy was the first to enter Narnia. When she returned the others do not believe her business relationship of Narnia. But Edmund entered Narnia too. Finally, however, all 4 siblings passed through the magical land. Three of siblings joined forces with talking animals who argon religious beliefful to Aslan(Turkish for lion)1, the king of beast, creator of Narnia. Edmund, however, turned betrayer and went over to the White Witchs castle. Aslan paid the atrocious cost of Edmunds betrayal by sacrificing his life to save the Edmunds life. With Aslans sacrificed on the Stone Table, the po wer of magic was broken. Narnia was freed since Aslans resurrection. The creatures that the White Witch had turned to stone were freed by Aslan. The four siblings spent several years in Narnia, growing up into young adults and reigning as kings and queens during Narnias Golden Age. Eventually the four siblings returned to their own world.The Theological ThemesThe Chronicles of Narnia The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe- is well known book in the world. The Author C. S. Lewis tells several theological themes through this book. This essay will discuss the theological themes of The Chronicles of Narnia.First of themes is the temptation. When the White Witch met Edmund, she tempted Edmund with Turkish delight. It was so delicious for him so he wanted some to a greater extent. She asked for him, Son of Adam, I should so much like to see your blood brother and your sisters. Will you bring them to me?2When Edmund had Turkish delight, also he had greed. He tried to bring his family and r evealed the plan that Aslan is gathering army. Because he wanted get some more Turkish delight and also wanted to be a prince. Thats results, he was trapped into the prison and Aslan was died. The bible says, Each one is tempted when, by his own annoyance desire, he is dragged away and enticed. Then, after desire has conceived, it gives birth to sin and sin, when it is full grown, gives birth to death (James 1 14-15). One of the problems with sin is addictive.3It separates us from God. So, how can we pommel temptation? The bible says, Submit yourselves, then, to God. Resist the devil, and he will flee from you (James 47).Second of themes is the ghostlike gifts. Father Christmas brought gifts for each of siblings. Peter got the sword and shield. Susan got the deflect and quiver of arrow. And Lucy got a diamond bottle of healing cordial and a dagger.4These gifts are tools that will help them fulfill their calling and face the challenges.5Jesus direct the Holy Spirit to each one of us. Now to each one the manifestation of the Spirit is given for the common good (1 Corinthians 127). All these are the work of one and the same Spirit, and he gives them to each one, just as he determines (1 Corinthians 1211). Each one of Christians have own special spiritual gifts from God.The last of themes are suffering and resurrection. Aslan is a redeemer. Jesus suffered and died on the cross for our sins. The results, we were freed from sins by his the redemption. Moreover, he resurrected from the death and fulfilled the covenant. Aslan is very similar as Jesus. First, he died on the Stone table for Edmund who betrayed him. Secondly, he resurrected from the death and he set free those the White Witch has held captive and turned to stone.6The last one is that the countersign tells us, He committed no sin, and no deceit was found in his mouth. When they hurled their insults at him, he did not retaliate when he suffered, he made no threats. Instead, he entrusted himself to h im who judges justly. He himself bore our sins in his body on the tree, so that we might to sins and live for righteousness by his wounds you have been healed (1 Peter 222-24).In conclusion, there are several theological themes in the Chronicle of Narnia. However, this is not a bible story but fantasy story that based on the authors theological faith. I received impression through the author. Because, every Christian have faith but they dont express their faith. However, C. S. Lewis expressed his faith through his gift from God that is writing. The more application of gifts is, the better gifts will have.

How And When Children Acquire Language English Language Essay

How And When Children Acquire Language English Language EssayIntroductionThe question to consider is how children acquire run-in and at which stage they could improve their speaking and listening skills. In particular, sentence structure and vocabulary be the principal(prenominal) disturbance of the wrangle accomplishment empyrean. The task of psycholinguistics is to account the relationship between terminology and the gentle encephalon (Field 2003). Many theories, therefore, take away emerged in exploring this relationship, which seek to explain the way in which children understand and acquire lyric poem. totally over the last five decades these theories deport offered various moods and interpretations of the relationship. For example, in Behaviourist theory, which is associated to skinners research into lyric poem, words acquisition is considered a collection of habits. It is ideal that children learn how to form line up utterances with positive reinforcement from the spate around them (Patten and Benati 2010). Cognitive theory, which is associated with Piaget, is considered a way of discovering how individuals force and use words in their social context (ibid, p71). funda cordial interaction theory, related to Bruner, holds that language comes from the interaction between children and their environment (ibid, p99). There be, however, deuce theories in the relevant acquisition literature which oppose unity a nonher and dismiss countless debates Chomskys theory and Tomasellos theory. In Chomskys theory, children biologically possess an inherent office to acquire their language. This ability is chief(prenominal)ly specific to language. Whereas, in Tomasellos theory language is acquired through language use by means of social skills, much(prenominal) as, joint management and general acquire mechanisms (Behrene 2009).This paper seeks to explore these two theories in rig together to contrast them. The start-off and gage parts of the paper present an over slew of the main ideas in the two theories. The third part focuses on their divergent aspects, including the distress of arousal short letter, linguistic creativity, modularity and language specific domain versus domain- general learning mechanisms. The fourth and final part, discusses some weak points in the two theories.Overview of Chomskys (Innatist) theoryIn language acquisition domain, Chomskys theory is called an innatist theory, because he proposed that children biologically possess desirable abstract knowledge for the task of first language learning .This abstract knowledge shapes the linguistic system which they learn. In fact, through this innate knowledge children understructure discover the rules of their language system and reduce surmise formation and guessing. (Patten and Benati 2010). Chomskys main cable is that all human beings ar born with an innate knowledge which is particularly designed for language acquisition (ibid). This argument is indeed, opposed to the one that language is a leave alone of the interaction between human beings and the environment or item-usage learning (e.g. Skinner, 1957 Tomasello, 2003). Furthermore, The term Language Acquisition Device (LAD) was coined by Chomsky in this context to refer to such innate knowledge or the little black box (Patten and Benati 2010).The (LAD) comprises the oecumenic principles of all languages, by which children privy be kept on track and non confused by all the complex rules of particular languages. When this (LAD) is activated, the child can discover the structure of the language s/he is to learn by twin(a) the innate knowledge of basic grammatical relationships to the structures of the special language in the environment (Lightbown and Spada 1999). However, since the 1960s, instead of (LAD) popular grammar conjecture (UG) was introduced by Chomsky. It was projectn much concern by him instead of, the (LAD), because, in Chomskys view this h ypothesis means that there is an innate knowledge source which governs the shape of natural language (Patten and Benati 2010). It should be storied that the first appearance of Chomskys theory was in 1959 in his critical review of Skinners book Verbal Behavior in 1957. Chomsky in his review pointed out many an(prenominal) shortcomings in applying Skinners theories to language acquisition. For example, Skinners experiment using rat boxes is not relevant to language because the behaviour of rats is unlike human behaviour. As a result, Skinner has a mistaken understanding of the nature of language. Furthermore, the environment considered solely as learning mechanism can not be the basis of language acquisition and therefore, mans ability to acquire language must be innate (Aitchison, 2007).Overview of Tomasellos theory (usage-based theory)The account of language acquisition provided by Tomasello comes under the umbrella of usage-based theories. Recently, a new view of language and hu man linguistic competence has emerged (Tomasello 2003). This view comes from a set of theories usually called cognitive-functional linguistics, and also called usage -based linguistics in pasture to emphasize their main ideas that language structure is produced or appears from language use (e.g. Langacker, 1987a Croft, 1991 Tomasello, 1995, 2003). It is note worthy that this view stands in direct opposition to Chomskys innatist theory. Because, Tomasello in his theory is mainly bear on with the question of how children get from here to there from the constructions of infant level speech to the abstract constructions of adult thought through one set of processes of acquisition (Tomasello 20033). In Tomasellos theory it is impossible that humans can have been born with a specific collection of communicative behaviours only for language. This collection more probably acquire by children during their years from the linguistic conventions used around them. They must possess flexibili ty in order to learn both the different words and the suitable expressions of each language and the different casefuls of abstract constructional pattern which historically these languages have grammaticized (ibid). Tomasello emphasizes, however, four points in his theory First, the innate skills which quite a little have are not specific to language but can be used as means for language learning.Second, theory of mind is central to symbol use, because humans can understand symbols while nonhuman do not possess this ability, because they use signal system. Thirdly, word-learning skills include joint attention, which means the ability that children possess in their first year old whereby they can understand other people as intentional agents and interact socially through an object to which both pay attention children note this attention to both it and themselves Intention reading, means the ability to understand the social world around them through imitating adult acts the construc tion-learning skills encompassing analogy and pattern-decision. The latter(prenominal) means the distributional analysis based on statistical information in the primary linguistic data and the ability to form perceptual and abstract figures of similar objects or situations (Tomasello 2003).The differences between the two theoriesIt is noteworthy that the accounts provided by Chomsky and Tomasello comprise many opposed aspects, of which the main ones are as follows3.1. Poverty of input argumentThe basic argument of the nativist theory is based on Chomskys assumption of the poverty of excitant (1965).This assumption means that the data provided by the input to which people exposed are not rich enough to account for language acquisition (Patten and Benati2010). In other words, it means that the language to which children are exposed as their input or the primary linguistic data is solely a set of individual utterances yielding some abstract principles of grammar which seem ambiguous for language acquisition .The best solution he can provide is the universal grammar hypothesis (UG), which means that all humans are born with an innate universal language containing a number of abstract principles which can lead the acquisition process (Tomasello 2003).Despite the fame of the poverty of stimulus argument in the language acquisition domain and childrens language research, it has certain, if we contrast it with the account provided by Tomasellos usage-based theory. We find that the research into the developmental psychology of language acquisition has provided many arguments which support the richness of stimulus in usage-based theories (e.g Clark2003, Tomasello 2003). In fact, the significance of social pragmatic interaction in language acquisition is evidenced by extensive findings in this domain (Tomasello 2003). To put it more simple, Tomasello in his theory emphasizes thatThere is no poverty of the stimulus when a structured inventory of construction is the adu lt endpoint (Tomasello 20037).He notes that the hypothesis of an innate universal grammar has two major problems, namely, first, the linking problem and the problem of perseveration. The first problem is how children can connect their abstract universal grammar with the particular language which they learn. The second problem deals with the developmental changes in childrens language, for example, how people can understand childrens language during their developmental change if we accept that universal grammar is always the same. It, therefore, seems useful to provide a description or explanation of child language acquisition which ignores any hypothesis of universal grammar which throws these problems (Tomasello 2003). Accordingly, it is important to note that Chomsky and Tomasello are opposed on the argument of the poverty of stimulus. Tomasellos view, however, seems stronger, because nativists provide no support for their claims. As Pullum and Scholz (200247) point out, the pov erty of stimulus argument still awaits even a single good funding example. Moreover, Akhtar (2004) seems to coincide with this criticism, in that she indicates that this argument was the basis for a number of nativist claims, yet indeed lack supporting empirical evidences.3.2. Language is creative other difference between Chomsky and Tomasello is the formers belief that language is creative. From Chomsky perspective, creativity in language has three- fold support. First, people possess the ability to understand and produce strange sentences which they have never before heard or spoken (Aitchison 2007). Second, the creative use of language is free from the external and internal affects of the stimulus reign (Chomsky 1968). Third, the way in which people use the language considered to be coherent and appropriate to the situation (Hegde 1980). By the way of contrast, we can see that Tomasello does not ignore creativity in language, but he has little concern for it. According to him, it results from the attempt of humans to create categories in their own language (Tomasello 1995).Chomsky asserts that the creativity in language is something which can not be acquired solely through environmental learning methods (Aitchison 2007). Tomasello contrastingly asserts that, during a period of time, children obtain the communicative conventions are obtained pace by step from the people around them. For example, their social cognitive skills and developing comprehension are utilised to internalise these conventions. Childrens basic abilities are used to learn their first words. They create concepts so as to understand adult speech and then to produce suitable new words in their communicative contexts (Tomasello 1995).It is thought, however, from the contrast between the two views that Chomskys view about the creativity of language has some limitations. For one thing, nativists assert that every utterance we hear and say is completely novel and accepted. This assertion s eems to be wrong. The reason is that to accept it we would need to discover that each word or sentence has a infract existence. Moreover, we have to assume that our past language cause is satisfactory to provide a clear understanding of the present utterances. But, if these assumptions are accepted, the result will be that human communicative behaviour has no continuity(Hegde 1980).The second point, on the creativity of language free from the surmount of stimulus, seems to be weak, because, as discussed above in section (3.1) no evidence has been offered in its support.Furthermore, with respect to the third point, in Chomskys view the way that people use language is coherent and appropriate to the situation. It could be argued that this point is somewhat vague, since Chomsky admits that he can give no clear meaning to the terms appropriateness and coherent in this context (ibid). However, he stresses that the creative aspect of language is common. Humans constantly create nove l utterances and many who lack this ability might be instinct damaged (Aitchison 2007). This view would be more popular if it took into account the effect of environmental learning methods in producing our utterances, since the one question that needs to be asked here is, how humans can produce them without communication with their input.3.3. ModularityIn the areas of linguistics and philosophy of mind, the idea of modularity has raised a great deal of concern (Garfield 1987). There seems to be other difference between Chomsky and Tomasello, about the modularity of mind in language acquisition. To illustrate, the definition of modularity according to Crystal (1998 246) isA term used in recent discussion of language in two slightly different ways. On the one hand, it is proposed, especially in J. A. Fodors The Modularity of Mind, that the mind is modular in the sense that it consists of a number of different systems ( modules) each has its own distinctive properties , such as the l anguage system and the vision system. On the other hand, it is suggested, especially in government-binding theory that language system itself is modular in the sense that it consists of a number of different subsystems which interact in specific ways.The concept of modularity is that the brain is divided into separate parts, an idea to which Chomsky gives much attention (1965).He identifies the language area as a separate faculty of mind, in that language is autonomous in the mind and a separate module in the brain (Aitchison 2007). Furthermore, he goes on to argue that the human mind is, like other complex biological systems, modular in its internal formation (Chomsky 1984).The main idea of modularity, according to him, is that the modularity of syntax means that the structures of syntax are not the same as the structures exist in other cognitive (Chomsky 1968 cited in Tomasello 1995). By the way of contrast, we can see that Tomasello does not bear that language is a separated mod ule in the brain, because, by his reasoning, in order to have a perfect grammatical theory the syntactic abilities should be combined into cognition and not like an autonomous sub-system (Parisse 2005).To sum up, Chomskys view is a modular view in which there are different sub-parts in the mind each one possessing special characteristics. Tomasello, however, take the non-modular view that there are general principles employed in all cognitive domains which control the mind (Archibald 1993).However, to return to the account of modularity provided by Chomsky, one of the difficulties with this account is the claim that syntactic structures are not like the structures which exist in other cognitive domains. This seems to be wrong, because it gives the idea that the syntax module is innate, yet if we give the example of the game of chess, we find that it possesses a number of unique structures, such as, the images of a knight separate or queen-a side attack- in human cognition. But ther e is no need to presume that this uniqueness chess- playing form needs an innate mental form (Bates et al. 1991).Moreover, the structures of cognitive thought which adults utilise in order to play the game of chess come through a process in which people employ general cognitive processes to face their problems in their social interaction which they may have had in learning to play a constructed game (Tomasello1995). Hence, it is thought that Chomskys view seems to be weak because it is difficult to specify which part of the brain is responsible for language. As Bates asserts, it still far from knowing perfectly which parts of the brain are responsible for language (Bates in press, cited in, Tomasello 1995).3.4. Language- specific versus domain- general learning mechanismsAnother point of difference between Chomsky and Tomasello concerns the way in which children acquire language. is another different point between Chomsky and Tomasello. The difference lies in the contention over whe ther language should be a specific domain or a domain general learning mechanism. A specific domain in this context means a domain specific to language, whilst, domain general refers to learning mechanisms which are not specific to language, yet applied generally.From Chomskys perspective, since, human beings are able to learn language and animals are not, this ability is considered genetically inherited (Aitchison 2007). Nativist theory, in fact, hypothesises that children are born with universal grammar (UG), a set of innate principles and parameters. This possession helps children to learn language without making errors as they learn (Conroy and Thornton 2005). Therefore, this assumes that children possess a pre- quick domain- specific innate form which specifies the form of their language knowledge. Moreover, in language learning in particular, syntax children obtain ability without exposure to adequate stimulus (Chomsky 1986, Pinker 1994).However, Tomasello believes that it is false to suppose that children have genetically endowed grammar (Tomasello 2003). To his mind, children in order to learn their language employ item-based learning integrated with some general learning mechanisms that are used in other cognitive domains , such as, analogy (Conroy and Thornton 2005). Moreover, in Tomasellos view the properties of language structure come from joint attention figures and not from innate language specific mechanisms (Segalowitz 2001). As a result, Tomasello significantly did not ignore language universals however, to him they not universals of form or a special type of syntax or linguistic symbols but are instead, the universals of human communication and cognition. For example, human beings use language in similar social contexts in order to provide solutions in language for communicative tasks, such as, describing specific entities (Tomasello 2003). Consequently, Chomskys view that language has a specific-domain is weak , because languages differ in their grammatical relations, of subject and object, for example, Acehnese, an Indonesian language, and Tagalog, a Philippine language, do not possess these grammatical relations ( Tomasello1995).4. Some weakness in both theoriesTomasello, then, introduced a new model of usage-based theories in language acquisition in which he paid attention to a main set of skills, namely, intention reading, joint attention and pattern-finding skills. These skills are general skills utilised also in other types of cognition and not in language alone. Furthermore, although they are innate, they are not like the universal grammar (UG) invented by Chomsky, because they are not specific to language (Tomasello, 2003). But Tomasellos account seems to entail some limitations. It is thought that he does not provide a clear explanation for the fact that these skills are sufficient for language acquisition. As Wilson (2006138) points outTomasellos central claim is that joint attention and intention reading are foundational and prerequisite for language acquisition. It does seems reasonable to assume that they are necessary for language development, but the big question is, are they sufficient? Can they entirely account for all of the complexities of language from parsing speech sprout to the emergence of complex grammatical structures?Hollich et al. (2000), on the other hand, seems to agree with this criticism, because they assert that Tomasellos theory, which is one of the social constructivist theories, does not possess a complete or sufficient explanation for the fact that children can produce increasingly inserted sentences in their utterances. Moreover, the problem with these theories is that they still offer no clarification of childrens ability to discover the relationships between language units.In contrast to this, Chomskys theory is considered one of the famous theories in the language acquisition domain. It has indeed, affected the entire literature language acquisition, because of the controversy surrounding it. to date this theory too attracts a number of criticisms.In this section, we focus on four critical points made against this theory. A major criticism concerns the universal grammar hypothesis (UG) which has been discussed above. Although (UG) aroused widespread interest in language acquisition debates, it is thought, that it is based solely on abstract thinking and lacks empirical support. As Kadarisman (2007a) points out, the concept of universal grammar must be without meaning unless it has empirical evidence. But, without adequate explanations, it seems to be more a slogan than a scientific effort. Moreover, due to its abstraction, (UG) neglects the local importance of language used in the cultural context (Becker 1995). Second, Chomskys theory is criticised for relying on logical arguments only. As Palmer (2000) indicates, Chomskys nativist claims remain are still the same as they have been fir the past two decades. Because his claims are based on logical arguments instead of, direct evidences or reasonable interpretations, his arguments have no external support. Tomasello seems, agree with Palmer in this criticism because he states that Chomsky in his account relies strongly on logical arguments, not using the scientific study of human behaviour and cognition (Tomasello 1995).Third, it is criticised because it can not be tested. This creates some contention around Chomskys account. The reason is that his theory has no clear cut procedures which could be examined. To put it more simple, Chomsky considered theory-construction in linguistics as similar to theory- construction in the physical sciences, particular, natural philosophy. Yet, there is a deference between these two domains, because, the mathematical model in physics depends on physical phenomena and is testable, whereas, Chomskys model relies on subjective judgments made by individual native speakers who may disagree with each other. Consequently, it c an not be tested (Moor and Carling 1987).Fourth, Chomskys theory is criticised in terms of its ideas, if considered as philosophical ideas, for instance the adoption of such innatist ideas as, the universal grammar (UG) hypothesis which is based on the hypothesis of an innate language faculty. Subsequently, many linguists (e.g. Hegde, 1980 Moore and Claring, 1987) have strongly criticised these ideas. For example, Hegde asserts that the concept of a nativist theory is merely part of an ancient philosophical idea. Furthermore, Moore and carling believe that Chomskian linguistics are linked by these ideas to philosophy, in particular, epistemology, the part of philosophy concerned with knowledge theories.ConclusionThe domain of language acquisition possesses a varied collection of theories. Their main concern is to discover the way in which people, in particular children, can acquire language. The accounts given by Chomsky and Tomasello can be critically contrasted, as seen above. The y plain stand on two opposite sides. In Chomskys theory, children are born with an innate ability by which they acquire their language, whereas, in Tomasellos theory, language is acquired through language use and not by biologically innate ability. Furthermore, the innate abilities which children have are not specific to language. However, the main aspects which have been contrasted in this paper comprised first, the poverty of stimulus argument, in which, according to Chomsky, the input is not sufficient to acquire language, while, from Tomasellos perspective there is no poverty of stimulus second, Language to Chomsky is creative, because it is free from the control of stimulus while in Tomasellos view language results from the attempt of humans to create categories in language third, modularity, Chomskys assertion that the mind is separated into sub-parts, whereas Tomasello believes, that general principles control the mind and fourth, Language- specific versus domain- general lea rning mechanisms either there are universals specific to language, as in (UG) hypothesis of Chomsky or, as Tomasello states universals is not specific to language but apply to all human communication and cognition.Hence, we can conclude that Chomskys account strongly relies on the hypothesis of universal grammar (UG) to support his view on the poverty of stimulus argument, creativity of language, modularity and the language- specific domain. It should be noted that the universal grammar hypothesis (UG) brought a great deal of debate among scholars of language acquisition, even though one of its limitations is that it has no empirical evidence to support it. Tomasellos account, conversely, depends on general skills in language acquisition, such as, joint attention, intention reading and pattern finding skills. Yet he did not provide adequate explanation to convince us that these are sufficient for language acquisition.

BP Commerce Analysis

BP Commerce AnalysisI believe strongly that we need a work purlieu where ein truthone can bring all in all of themselves to work every day and non feel like they befuddle to be someone else in parade to succeed.-Tony Hayward, BP chief operating officer/BP is one of the largest establishments in oil, gas, and alternative zip riotousener industry in the world. It employs more than 100 000 people across the world and provides essential oil, gas, and energy products for nearly 13 million customers every day in more than 100 countries. The comp any(prenominal) has a wide range of businesses including exploration and production, refining and marketing, gas power, and alternative energy (BP, 2010). Despite the success in the market or economic downturns, organization always must c ar ab stunned their employees who bring this success through skills, competencies, and saturated work. Therefore, company must have a change and cellular inclusion polity in place in direct to create perfect operative surroundings for these employees, to motivate them, remunerate, and retain the best.We might ask ourselves why diversity and inclusion is so important to any large or small company. The answer is that employees, shareholders, customers, suppliers, and partnership partners place a soaring value on organization for being fair and meritocratic (BP, 2010). Furthermore, we need to recognize the availability of skilled employees is stomachting small in nowadays market and economic situation. Every organization tries to attract tonic skilled labor and to retain talented employees in the company. In run to achieve that, organizations must have reputation, operational processes and imbedded policies, working climate that non only respects discriminations, only when expose them for competitive advantage.BP is a multinational organization and it is essential to have an up-to-date policies and cognitive processs in place for evaluation and monitoring purposes in o rder to comply with jibeity and inclusion policies, avoid any frame of discrimination, and ensure equal opportunities for everyone. Different organizations have contrary policies and practices and in order to compare BP to others, this organizational audit will review BPs other master(prenominal) competitors such as Exxon and Shell for a comparison on diversity and inclusion issues, provide investigation summary of BPs equal opportunity and equal pay practices, and provide action plans and cost and benefit analysis in order to enhance equality and diversity practice in the organization.A thickset of AnalysisThe purpose of this project is to produce diversity and inclusion analysis for BPs nitrogen Africa Strategic Performance Unit (further NA SPU) based on pay review recommendations in 2009 for employees to be nucleusive on 1st of April 2010. I will be looking at Level E ( old train leaders) to Level K (administration) concentrating on equal pay issues and grammatical gender inequality (gaps) among UK employees only. The reason for this is that NA SPU has fairly big population and it is down to UK employees based locally in UK and in the businesses across the world. More to mention, this SPU is a perfect representation sample for other similar strategic performance units across the organization.270 employees in due north Africa Strategic Performance Unit (NA SPU)139 UK nationals in NA SPU31 Fe male employees108 Male employeesLevel E (senior train leaders) 7 Males 0 FemalesLevel F( group leaders/professionals) 26 Males 2 FemalesLevel G ( squad leaders/professionals 30 Males 4 FemalesLevel H (team leaders/professionals 19 Males 6 FemalesLevel I (specialists/advisors) 17 Males 8 FemalesLevel J (specialists/advisors) 8 Males 5 FemalesLevel K (administration) Male 1 6 FemalesAll analysis is done only for the UK nationals population across all Levels, and Disciplines in NA SPUIn order to get a better picture about pay equality and find out if in that location is any gaps in gender equality it is essential to analyse consistency of wages Review process across the NA SPU and identify effectiveness inequality in monetary reward between genders in different departments, levels, and across different disciplines. It is important to concentrate on the data which is robust- gender, income, length of service, and assort by levels and disciplines.The sample group of employees does consist of different levels from E (senior level leaders) to K (administrative employees). It is a healthy business population that depicts statistical average of different employees in SPUs and other businesses within the company.Even though we have split the data down to segments any equal opportunity data is best analysed by working of groups so similar in roles and at similar level can be looked at. In order to understand the data better, I am providing few tables with graphic representation and statistical summary of the proposed data, following th e brief comments to bring the main points or anomalies that could be potential gaps in reward and gender equality in the workplace.E F G H I J K LevelAverage SalaryGraph 1 Average New Salary comparison between Males and Females All LevelsHigher level male and distaff employees positioned on the higher range of average salary scale and lower level male and female employees positioned on the lower range of average salary- it is consistent across every level. As the graph shows all the proposed employee salaries does not have any significant and female and male employees up to level G are similarly positioned on the salary grid. However, I would like to mention that circled in cherry-red on the graph data shows that level F female employees are on the lower range of the salary canvas to level F male employees. Picking the fact that there is significantly low number of female workers in higher levels- it raises the question of the possible glass ceiling that prevents female workers to get higher levels and be stipendiary equally.Graph 2 Average New Salary by Job Discipline All LevelsThis data is very interesting, because it compares proposed new average salary between male and female employees in all levels but grouped by job discipline. The lowest paid group is administration, and the highest paid group of employees are drilling, geosciences disciplines where employees considered as professional and highly skilled work deposit. Unfortunately, we notice that in geosciences and petroleum engineering disciplines we a have a significant difference in average salary between male and female employees. This is due to the fact that we have few women who works in these disciplines and the pay equality is very doubtful. On the other hand women earn more in average in the administration and commercial disciplines and we do not have any women working so called male oriented jobs in drilling and maintenance disciplines. This needs more investigation of companys recrui tment policies and procedures why company does not attract more women into these jobs.Graph 3 Average New Salary by Years of Service All LevelsThis graph shows different set of data how the salary progresses depending on length of service despite the level of the employee but across level groups and disciplines. We can notice the gradual increase in salary for women and men, however we have only few women with a lengthy history of employment with company, but the good fact is that more and more women are hired into the business comparing with 20 years ago. It is expenditure to mention that circled in red- employees appear in the bottom of the range due to lower levels and the job discipline itself (administration).A parole of the Meaning of the Data CollectedTo summarise the findings it is clear that males and females are equally paid and well aligned to each other in every level, but there are few gaps in certain disciplines. Even though the national UK statistics is showing tha t the pay gap between gender is very high (see appendix 1) BP is trying their best to live on according to Equal Pay Act (release 1970), and Equal Pay between sexes (Article 141, EC Treaty). However the lack of female employees in main leadership positions and levels in our sample population- by all means might be understood as glass ceiling effect in the company (Podro, 2006).Therefore, it is interesting to look deeper into BP diversity and inclusion constitution and compare the information to main rival companies policies and think of further improvements and recommendations in order the DI policy in BP policy to be attractive and by no means discriminatory.Table 1 Diversity Policy Comparison between CompetitorsRecruiting underdeveloped DiversityInclusive LeadershipBPThe number of graduates recruited through global recruitment program has increased by 58% since 2005 and 63% of these are engineers or scientists.35% of all graduate hires were women, while 34% of all graduate hire s came from racial or ethnic minorities.Diversity and inclusion policy aims to create a in truth inclusive meritocracy at organization, in which the diversity of workforce reflects global reach and maximizes available talent while respecting individual differences. By valuing the differences between employees company establishes a platform for creativity, innovation and problem solving. There is a commitment to the development of a culture of diversity is therefore a true business imperative.Managing cellular inclusion program is now mandatory for all senior level leaders and by the end of year 2006, around 1000 employees at this level had ideal the program.The program is still continues to exist in the organization.ExxonWomen comprise about 25 percent of companys worldwide workforce, excluding company-operated retail stores. Approximately 12 percent of executive employees are women, compared to 9 percent in 2000.Organizations strength is the quality and diversity of employees. Or ganization operates Global Workforce Diversity Framework to attract, develop, and retain a premier workforce, actively foster a work environment where individual and cultural differences are respected and valued and identify and develop leadership capabilities of employees to perform effectively in a variety of environments.Organization is committed to promoting leadership opportunities for women globally and improving the gender balance in the company.ShellBy the end of 2009, 14.0% of the most senior leadership positions were filled by women, up from 13.6% in 2008. As well, 26.4% of supervisory positions (up from 24.7% in 2008) and 16.1% of management positions (up from 15.3% in 2008) were held by women.With a core strategic team in Central HR as well as representatives in organizations businesses worldwide, diversity and inclusiveness is an entire part of the organization. It has a vital part to play in underpinning its continuing success by ensuring attraction, recruitment, and retaining the best people- regardless of their gender, nationality or background.Local people fill senior management positions in every country we operate in. In 37% of countries, local nationals filled more than half the senior leadership positions, compared to 32% in 2008Sources BP (2010) Shell (2010) ExxonMobil (2010)3. An Equality PlanBP has made a significant investment over a ill-judged period of date to raise awareness of the importance of diversity and inclusion in the organization. The diversity and inclusion team was reorganized in 2007 in order to shift ownership of diversity and inclusion to the line and embedded in the business to ensure coincidence with organizational strategic plans (BP, 2010).This reorganization of the team paid dividends in the sense that the companys diversity and inclusion policy was a driving force in creating particular date in the workplace, changing leadership attitudes, improving performance representation statistics against competitors, and building pride and ownership among employees in different strategic performance units in the organization.To be more specific, in order to achieve desired results there should be a support for leaders and line managers with put onation of a framework that defines the schema and priorities. The need of advancements or improvements on existing policies and the frameworks are imminent to achieve business goals and improve on diversity issuesTable 2 Diversity inclusion body Development and MaitenancePopulationActionsLeadership teamGovernance of diversity and inclusion strategy and periodical reviews of the progress. get word objectives embedded within operating business in every strategic performance unit.DI teamDeveloping and proposing strategy, policy, and framework that advocates and supports diversity and inclusion. Cooperating with HR teams and outside(a) sources in order to be up to date with the policy and practices.HR teamServing as consultants and advising everyone i nvolved to identify the critical DI areas in the organization that needs improvement. Leading various activities across the business to pass on the equal opportunities.BP employeesEveryone must take a part in helping the organization to tackle the diversity issues by taking responsibility for diverse demeanour and attitudes. It is essential to participate in creating inclusive working environment using all available tools and support.Having said that, I would like to concentrate on North Africa SPU populations gender equality and equal pay issues and provide recommendations on what can be done to improve situation and to be compliant with BP diversity mannikin and policiesTable 3 Recommendation CostsIssueTargetRecommendationCostEquality in gender workforceSignificantly increase the luck of female employees in senior level jobsAggressive external recruitment and local talent search via internal recruitmentHigh cost external recruitment and headhunting can be very expensive sin ce there is scarce pool of highly skilled women to fill in senior level positions nominal costs local talent search via intranet, local recruitment database, and companies internal publications in every form and shapeEqual pay across the levels and disciplinesEnsure the pay reviews are according to equal pay act and not discriminatory among male and female workersTo review the policy of Salary Review procedure and implement a equal pay process that would allow team leaders to have market data during the annual pay conversationsMinimal costs internal policy review procedure, and up to line managers responsibility to be up-to-date of legalitiesMedium costs a market research, investigation new trends, era costs as well implementing, and communicating the new procedures (if any)Equal opportunities for career progressionIncrease the percentage of female workers in male dominated disciplines (for physical exercise geosciences and drilling)Professional development workshops and attr active internship schemes for university graduatesMedium costs third party provided courses and development sessionsMedium costs graduate recruitment campaigns, including task group time costs, competitive graduate packages to retain the best talentsCulture changeDI learning sessions / conferencesTo make aware BP population about internal issues and introduce to internal statistics fictionalize on importance of diverse workforce and how it could be change to achieve diverse working environmentMinimal cost lunch and learn sessions, DI team monthly bulletins, presentationsMedium costs external investigation or third party conferences and sessions about the different issues of DIOn the other hand, some policies might not become a good practice and therefore organization could face a biggest obstacle- its own culture (Kirton and Greene, 2005). Having said that, it is important that organizations do not force the decisions and make the policy unnatural thing. Diversity and inclusion comes along with the culture and one changes another. So, in order to change the rules of the game in nowadays fast changing environment, organizations should come up with diversity audit to highlight the potential gaps.A Cost and Benefit AnalysisIt is important that leadership of the organization understands that companies that implement workforce diversity policies acquire an important benefits that strengthen not only long-term competitiveness in the market but also produce short and medium-term performance results (CSES, 2003). Therefore, a cost and benefit analysis is widely used to establish how well a planned action or new policy might turn out. The analysis always brings a results into monetary values, so the very important that a cost benefit analysis include all the costs and all the benefits in order to count the true value and establish if the new policy or new action plan is worth the money.On the other hand, companies in most cases gain positive non-monetary benefits. As Hubbard (2004) clearly explained the value of non-monetary benefits- loyalty of the staff, reputation of the organization, employer of the choice status, and etc. can not be transferred or measured into value of money. Also, the major benefit is that making employees and leadership to think critically and be explicit about the issues within the company that along with diversity and inclusion it brings new strategic choices like culture change.Would like to stress on the few diversity and inclusion initiative that BP already is working on, which is with no doubt puts organization in very positive place among the competitors and promotes business success by trying to minimize obstacles to inclusion affinity groups- typically form around ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, or disabilities, but groups that wish to focus on other important or relevant issues may be considered on a case by case basis, and BP as organization encourages and supports affinity groups working for busines s benefit (BP, 2010). To name a few, these include the African American Network, Asian American Network, Womens Network, Beyond Pride, BP Latino Network, Gray Matters, and Working Parents and Parents-to-Be.Flexible working- organization always recognizes that flexible working arrangement is almost a part of the modern working environment and can enable it to retain and attract skilled staff and increase employee commitment and morale. And the most important- the flex-working scheme is an integral part of BPs diversity and inclusion agenda.There are more of these initiatives and groups that work towards developing diverse and inclusive workforce around the world, but of course, there are costs as well associated with the implementation of diversity policies in the organization. Let not forget the cash costs of compliance with laws on discrimination, as well as the investment into programmes that serves as implementation to change internal cultures in the way that the diverse workforc e is recruited, retained, and developed (CSES, 2003).To reiterate more on proposed changes for North Africa SPU and diversity and inclusion strategies for BP company as a whole, over recent years, BP has implemented and managed a wide range of global and local diversity and inclusion training programs and initiatives to support employees in understanding diversity and building inclusive behaviors. As we could see that organization is treats the DI very importantly in order to stay in the leading position in the market, however there is plenty to do and enough work in progress.

Essay --

Character DevelopmentJohnIn the novel, we see John changing in many aspects. First, he gain approximately of his legacies. Like resistant to heat and being able to talk to other creatures. For the first time in his life, John finds a place of which he bath truly call paradise. For example, on page 258, John saysI dont want to leave. I have a friend, and I have a girlfriend. I am not going to leave.Hes found people that actually care about(predicate) him and dont care about who he really is. After Henri telling him he will never be a normal person, John starts to get worried that he wint be with Sarah forever. John begins training and starts to prepare to fight the Mogadorians after refusing to leave Paradise because hes caused too much attention. Henri tells him many times but since hes found a place where he belongs, he doesnt want to leave. scrapeWho wouldve expected Mark to be the laugh at to save Johns life in the end. On page 439, it saysMark, I owe you more than Ill ever be able to repay. so Mark responds withYou dont owe me a thingThis passage is critical to the development of Marks Character because in the book, the first daytime John came to class, Mark tripped him, at the Halloween fair, he hurt him. The hatred between these two was burning hot. I kind of find it ironic that the person who precious to kill John ended up saving his life.This leads me to the question of Why did Mark all of a sudden change ?I think Mark changes because he realizes that with him being mean to everyone else, he lost friends and the most important of them all was his girlfriend of the time, Sarah. Significant PassagesWeve done all we could. And whats done is done.(pg.418)This name is critical to the development ... ...like he says on page 440,Ill come back to you. I promise you if its the last thing I do, Ill come back to you.Book vs. MovieI tangle like I liked the book better than the movie because in the movie, I felt like things were moving a bit too fast and i n the book, they go into detail. The movie was also missing some scenes like Marks house burning down, it changed up some facts in the end. In the movie, John convinces Number six to let Sam come with them but in the book, it seems as though they both have their own agreement together. I felt like because I read the book before watching the movie, I knew what was hazard like the scars coming on Johns body. One more thing. In the movie, they never mention the magazine They walk Among Us. They only mention it when Henri goes to the sources house. But overall, I thought the book was far better than the movie.

What is the Function of a Social Contract? Essay -- essays research pa

What is the Function of a Social take in charge?Philosophers have been concerned with the theories of a hearty make for thousands of years. Plato mentions the concept in Crito and in Republic. These theories have stemmed from the concept of justice and for our society to be just. I will look at the works of doubting doubting Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau and fin every last(predicate)y with John Rawls after which a overall view into the function of a social twitch can be derived as well as any problems with the theory(s). The basic concept of a social contract is for members of society to enter into a voluntary contract, which allows society to go from a state of nature to a state of civilisation. What is meant by a state of nature is quite similar to how the rest of the animal kingdom works. A someones security depends on his or her own personal power. The fittest survive and the weakest suffer. Every person is concerned with his or her own ends. Plato outlin ed two types of contract within society. These were the contract of citizenship and the contract of community. The contract of citizenship was tackled in Crito. He regarded it as a contract made by each individual citizen with the state or law. If a man is to remain in a political society he will have to accept its obligations for he has enjoyed it privileges and benefits.The contract of community was cover in Republic Book II. This theory is based on the assumption the man is an egoist. With this assumption of every man for himself it is likely that he would either occasion harm to others or sustain harm from others and therefore there would be a need to combat this. Thomas Hobbes published his work, the leviathan, which included theories of a social contract. His view is very similar to Platos in regards to contract of community. He felt that there was a need for members of a society to Curtail the warfare of all against all and without these theories this war would spiral out of control with everyone competing against scarce resources. He talks about how a persons strength is all that protects them from others. The only way he saw fit to counter this predicament would be for a person to voluntarily agree to a contract where their inseparable freedom is given up in return for personal security. This freedom would be give up to the supreme authority, the Leviathan, which would serve as a reciprocal pow... ...ction to relatives and close associates. The theory of cosmopolitan will also has problems. What can protect society from unjust rulers who say they are working in the way of general will? General will does not allow for difference in taste. It also identifies moral obligation with general interest. This is a problem because people may have similar morals but have different interest. The rulers can also work with regards to the interest of the state but not with regards to morals. BibliographyLeviathan Thomas Hobbes edit by Richard Tuck 1991 Cambri dge University PressRousseaus Political Philosophy Ramon M Lemos 1977 University of Georgia PressThe Second Treatise of Government John Locke edited by Thomas P Peardon 1952 Bobbs and Merrill company inc.Problems of Political Philosophy revised edition DD Raphael 1976 Macmillan Press ltd.The Social Contract and Discourses Jean Jacques Rousseau translated by GDH Cole 1973 JM Dent and Sons ltd.The Social Contract or Principles of Political Right second edition revised Jean Jacques Rousseau translated by Henry J Tozer 1898 Swan Sonnenschein and Co.